Musical Heritage as mediator of dialectic relation in Korea on production side

작성자:

Musical Heritage as mediator of dialectic relation in Korea on production side

  1. Context, Background

 The topic of this research is intangible musical heritage, particularly Arirang folk song in South Korea. The reason for selecting Arirang as a topic is that it is the most representative song and symbol of Korea. Widespread are regional practicing communities. It has been considered “the song of the Korean people” and it is “a global symbol for the preservation of oral and intangible cultural assets” (Kwon, O. 2012).

Korea is one of the countries that ratified the 2003 convention which ICH concept originated from. According to UNESCO, Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) is an inclusive concept, as it means knowledge, oral tradition, music, language, etc. The history of ICH field is relatively short, compared to other cultural fields. Since the ICH convention in 2003 initiated by UNESCO, articles regarding ICH actively started to be published. Although its history as academic field is short, the history of heritage itself is so long, as it even goes back to the birth of human.

 As heritages are designated by a nation, they acquire the status of national heritage, treasure, etc. If those heritages are nominated by UNESCO, they obtain the status of world heritage. Heritage studies are interdisciplinary.

Cultural anthropology, folklore studies, and museum studies are related to the study of heritages. But, so many other fields can be interrelated under the name of heritage.  CHS is different from existing heritage studies in a way that it “emphasizes cultural heritage as a political, cultural, and social phenomenon” (Kynan Gentry, 2019). Combining heritage with other fields is popularizing social phenomenon. 

 The historical scope of this research is from liberation of Korea in 1945 to current days. Rather than using the vocabulary “history,” I want to use “memory.” One of the metaphors is as follows: heritage is “a marker of memory” (Dacia Viejo-Rose, 2015). So, the interpretation of this memory is necessary for the next generation.

Intangible Cultural Heritage as a “collective memory,” the stakeholders, communities need to put in the center for proper interpretation. The inclusion and exclusion of the subject involves a political process. What kind of memory should be selected and remembered is considered an important issue. Those memories that passed through heritage are multi-layered.

Cultural Heritage Source Download

2. Purpose, questions

 The purpose of this study is to explore new possibility of expressing “common shared (identity) of Korean” in the relation of different parties who practice and administer Arirang folk songs. The problem with shared identity between communities and institutions is the subjection of particular party in ideological conflict. In this study, a tentative definition for “Common (Shared) identity of Korean” is Koreanness shared among multiple groups in the increased flow of socio-cultural interaction. With the increased flow in the current age, the Korean identity is shared by multiple categories of group and regarding institutions such as CHA in South Korea and UNESCO.

 This research aims to investigate the role of musical heritage in mediating dialectic relation in Korea. It aims to answer how the disparate level of subject parties experience relation and perform identity through ICH. Does the heritage cause conflict in and after of ‘heritagisation’ process, or does heritage ‘instrumentalized’ by many actors in conflict which already existed before? Here definition of conflict indicates conflicts between different nation-states and conflicts between people and organizations in different nation-states. How different practitioner groups in South Korea use Arirang folk song in conflict situation? Does the individual’s socio-economic class and status gap influence the experience of Intangible Cultural Heritage?

These questions are what is missing in the literatures i’ve referenced. These are needed to be addressed because the Arirang song provides means of expression to all kinds of individuals. It contributes as the problem-solving solution to social division situations in South Korea. Based on the articles I’ve referenced, the current state of knowledge can be divided into producing lists and consuming already listed ones. On the consumption side, ICH nomination affects to increase of tourism, hence it also brings economic benefits (Bak, S. et al., 2019). What I have found is the importance of safeguarding as a process-oriented approach across all generations. 

 There is a lack of study about grassroots group relations with authoritative subjects and institutions.. As Representative List, Arirang is characteristic in its inclusiveness as it is a song of suffering people and minorities. It was a means of expression and contributed to cultural diversity. The existing claim of nationalism regarding shared identity is that members of the nation shared a common identity within a specified group.

In the case of Arirang, the municipality-based community network contributes to an inclusive society by being used in international events and ceremonies such as the Olympics. The authentic existence of shared heritage was widespread after the post-colonial era. What is missing from current knowledge about ICH and Arirang is its possibility of contributing to future generations as means of conflict-solving tool. 

 The rationale of this research is the intangible value of Arirang as the representation of multiple groups of people based on locality. In the management of common identity, Cultural Heritage Administrative in ROK took an important part. Arirang in ROK achieved the status of a cultural asset in 2015 after getting the status of ICH by UNESCO in 2012.

In acquiring the status of mass culture supported by the nation, its subcultural characteristics practiced by the local community did an important role (Seonwoo, Kim, 2020). For the production of pan-national(all-inclusive) identity, the subcultural characteristic of Arirang needs to be considered in self-staging of mass culture. 

3. Hypotheses

 Firstly, I hypothesize that through reflection and performing of heterogeneous identity, Arirang contributes to the construction of peace between different stakeholders in Korea. As mean of dialectic relation, ICH can contribute to sustainable development goals, until 2030. Arirang is connected with SDG 16(peace, justice, and strong institution) of UN.

Second hypothesis is that the shared identity between grassroots groups(practicing communities) and authoritative institutions contribute to overcoming postcolonial legacy in Korean Society. The performative culture of Arirang song as “living heritage” in daily lives affects to reproduction of community and their identity in multiple space and time layers.

4. Theoretical framework

 Theory supporting my hypotheses is intersubjectivity theory. I’ll adopt Marx’s political term “class struggle”. Inclusion and exclusion within community, and the international heritage list is political process. The concept can be sophisticated by adopting the theory and term in the other social science field. A discursive strategy for the legitimization of argumentation is a critical analysis by applying inter-subjective theory and Marxian vocabulary of class regarding its political language.

When approached from the angle of intersubjectivity theory, Intangible Cultural Heritage is difficult to be objective because of its intangibility. Arirang musical heritage had become multiple symbols of suffering people and national pride. Human intersubjectivity is achieved through communicative resources such as language. As Arirang was transmitted using language from living heritage treasures to younger generation, the representativity of communities in the song seems to change and renew in timely manner. In-group identification through song occur through the shared experience.

 The strength of the theory is that it is helpful for explaining relation between actor’s perspective toward Arirang. It is effective in explanation of relatedness between two or more actors. The weakness is that intersubjectivity theory and concept was originated from other fields. I’ll apply “intersubjective self” to Arirrang community and institution. The reason why intersubjective theory is so compelling for me is that  to understand who are included in, excluded from, the community,. Adopting this theory, I would explain the reaction of institutions According to Federico Lenzerini (2011), “self-identification” is important trait of ICH. “Self identification” through “constant recreation” does not imply hierarchy or classification.

5. Literature Review 

 What has been written about heritage studies can be divided into production and consumption.  Among the literature on heritage production in international list and knowledge. Registering in the list of UNESCO is the production of World Heritage and Intangible Cultural Heritage under the system of the international organization.

Existing criticism is that international organization is the regime of heritage, and the effort of registering by each country is patrimonial “heritagisation” or even amalgamation. Among countries that ratified this, South Korea actively registered its heritage. According to the analysis of Chen et al. (2020), heritage is the soft power of the country, and it is a part of the nation’s identity. Authors descriptively analyzed research trends in each region, Asia, Europe, and the United States.

 The literature discussing questions concerning heritage consumption is Bak, S., Min, C. K., & Roh, T. S. (2019) and Seonwoo, Kim. (2020). The linkage between these literatures were impacts of enlisting on individuals(tourists and practitioners) Here the status of individual was quantified as intervening and control variable. Control variables include tourist’s health, education level, and urban or rural area where they live.

 In regarding with production of list, with the fear of losing diversity, countries participated construction of the convention. However before that, developed countries already produced the national list and invested in it. The meaning of gap between developed and developing countries is difficulties of applying Operational Directives of the convention to all of the ratified countries on universal level.

In the study of Seong-mi Jeong (2019), the author shows the class system of earlier periods in South Korea remained a legacy in detail of tangible and intangible heritage.

Here the craft item used in marriage rituals and skill making of it both correlated to individuals’ status. In rituals such as marriage, the list of items was different according to class and social status.

Since the modernization of Korea, this Tangible Heritage and ICH wasn’t fully transferred to the young generation.

Similarly, the rising importance of safeguarding is reflected in the analysis of the trend. Safeguarding means a more active process with an aim for preservation than the word ‘preservation’ which was used before.

The new keyword ‘safeguarding’ was added to the existing analyzed keyword. The longer period was inspected by Oh Jung-shim (2021).

When considering the quantified method is relatively rare in the cultural heritage and anthropology field, this article using quantitative data is helpful for the understanding network of articles from international cultural heritage-related journals.

Because one of the most characteristic parts of Arirang lies in the possibility of improvisation and changing lyrics. The intangibility of heritage is a recent paradigm and based on the literature, it has meta cultural nature. Intangibility of Arirang, bitterness represented as sensibility of Korean ethnicity articulated within postcolonial conflicts.

In the case of Arirang folk song of both South and North Korea, as it was popular by all classes of people, it was no need of safeguarding. The characteristic of Arirang as a sub-culture was described by Seonwoo Kim (2020). As tool of expression, it can be used by minorities for political purposes as reproduction of identity. That category of Arirang contrasts with the main, national version.  

6. Research design and methodology

 In this deductive study,  I’lladapt the qualitative method. I’ll do interviews and library-based research. The methodology that I propose to analyze is aimed at answering the question I’ve suggested. I need to interview workers in heritage institutions such as CHA in South Korea and agencies connected with UNESCO.

Along with that, I’ll interview young educators, transmitters and students studying the “living heritage” practice. To answer the aforementioned research questions, historical contextualization of Korea regarding Arirang song is required.

7. Implication and contribution of the study to knowledge (Applicability of Results)

In this study concerning involved actors in the negotiation process, the value of performative culture, “intangibility” would reveal the way. It would contribute to increasing awareness of diversity in Korean Society. As an attempt to go beyond the realm of tangible heritage, this research would contribute to concerning stakeholders related to the mediation of Arirang.

In search for social conflict through heritage education in the future, young individuals and organizations, agencies, and institutions. Arirang song appropriated all classes of people (Kim, S. 2020). In this regard, the parties both on production and consumption side can coexist and contribute to sustainability in conflict situations through changes.

8. Contribution

The study would contribute to understanding  layer of respect and coexistence of which brings peace in Korea.

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

–References

Duranti, A. (2010). Husserl, intersubjectivity and anthropology. Anthropological theory, 10(1-2), 16-35. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463499610370517

Schramm, K. (2015). Chp 27. Heritage, Power and Ideology. Waterton, E. & Watson, S.(Ed.). The Palgrave handbook of contemporary heritage research. (pp. 442-457). PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-2935-6

Sangmee Bak, Chung-Ki Min & Taek-Seon Roh (2019). Impacts of UNESCO-listed tangible and intangible heritages on tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36(8), 917-927. DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2019.1658034

Seong-mi Jeong. (2019). (Co-) curating the rural traditions and material culture of villages: a case study in Wanju, Korea. International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 14, 173-185.  DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2019..14.010 https://www.ijih.org/volumes/article/845

Jung-shim Oh. (2021). Research flows and results of studies on intangible cultural heritage: A network analysis of articles in related international journals, 2002–2020. The International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 16, 18-29. DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2021..16.004

Seon-woo Kim. (2020). The Subcultural Characteristics and Consumption Forms of Arirang — With a focus on its history from the Enlightenment period to colonial period — . THE JOURNAL OF MODERN LITERARY THEORY, 81, 31-57. DOI : 10.22273/SMLT.81.2 https://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3790701

Yulong Chen, Ke Xue & Megan Dai (2020). The academics of Intangible Cultural Heritage – knowledge map analysis based on CiteSpace (2003-2019). International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 15, 181- 198. DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2020..15.012

Musical Heritage as mediator of dialectic relation in Korea on production and consumption side

작성자:

Musical Heritage as mediator of dialectic relation in Korea on production and consumption side

 Intangible Cultural Heritage(ICH) is distinguished as Representative List and Urgent Safeguarding List, according to UNESCO. One of the Representative List in South Korea is Arirang folk song and it is shared by North Korea, too.

As it transfers from national to international list, the song contributes to construction of peace between different stakeholders of Korea in a conflict situation, particularly in class division, struggle and social dogma.

The scopes of conflict include socio-economical, inter-provincial, and bureaucracy-originated. Those three constituents are all relation-oriented. In Korea, legacy of prior caste system abolished in law. However, still pervasive are social division and discriminations toward minorities.

Within each divided Korea, Arirang consists of about 3600 various versions based on different regions in Korea. It is a symbol of cultural diversity. Then does the representative song contribute to problem solving solutions in social division situations of South Korea?

Cultural Heritage Source Download

 The history of ICH field is relatively short comparing other cultural fields. When considering community hasn’t been clearly defined in the 2003 convention of UNESCO, what kind of stakeholders would be included and excluded is need to be considered in a community-based approach. In this regard, existing criticism is UNESCO as an international cultural regime and heritage enlisting as political process. Based on the articles i’ve referenced, in ICH field, recent studies are focused on the influence of ratification among six groups of countries and possibility of interdisciplinary study with other fields.

ICH is an inclusive concept as it means knowledge, oral tradition, music, language, etc. As instruments of the convention, music constitutes a key part of heritage studies. Intangibility of heritage is recent paradigm and it has meta cultural nature, which means it goes beyond cultures of community in terms of the UNESCO heritage list is for universal humanity.

In the case of Arirang, as “living heritage”, it has undergone continuous change passing through different generations. Anyone can participate in the change of lyrics and improvisation.

The value of Arirang is identified as the inclusiveness of different categories of identity. Different levels of stakeholders; individuals, the ruling(upper) class, and the nation used Arirang for the reproduction of identity. Particularly, the song was a critical tool for the minor subject who seek inter-subject exchange and diversity.

 Under many other ICH domains, performing arts contains many instruments as music is the most universal human expression. In it, the political dimension is more associated with the production side. On the other side, the economical dimension is associated with the consumption side.

As the most popular song in Korea, enjoyment, and consumption of Arirang in certain sub group was depicted by Kim, S. (2020). They consume the song differently from the ruling class. In South Korea, among many versions, currently, 36 versions of Arirang are known.

Mainly, there are four types of Arirang; Jeongseon, Jindo, Milyang, and Bonzo. Heterogeneous local identities based on those different cities(E.g. Jeongseon, Jindo, Milyang) and national identity(E.g. Bonzo) as the main culture transferred into international lists. Main ‘Bonzo’ version goes back to the colonial period of Korea. At that time it was a counter-culture resisting Japan. Under the legacy of imperialism, civil people expressed their emotions through song.

After liberation, the regional version became a subculture resisting the ruling class. It served as media, a lens of mirror of Korean ethnics rather than the message itself. In Marx’s economic-political term ‘the class struggle’, one of the forms of it is ideological.

The meaning of cultural production is controlled by cultural elites in institutions. Lower classes of people struggled with the inability of accessing cultural means. But in the case of Arirang, it provided means for mass to consume the song and reproduce their identities to be connected with national and international institutions up until the present day.  

 On consumption of heritage side, according to Bak, S. et al., (2019), heritage registration on international list positively influenced to increase of tourism and economic benefit to the 72 countries which ratified 2003 convention. In the case of Safeguarding List tour spot, it needs to be more careful than Representative List. In the literature, the status of tourists was quantified as intervening and control variables. Control variables include individuals’ health, education level, and urban or rural area where they live in.

Tourists who don’t have conditions to travel cannot contribute to an increase in heritage tourism. In the other study by Jeong, S (2019), the author shows that since the liberation of Korea, the skill of Tangible Heritage(TH) and ICH weren’t fully transferred to the young generation in rural areas, particularly Wanju city. As “living heritage”, tangible craft items used in ritual and skill making of it both correlated to individuals’ class and social status.

According to the author, Individuals need to participate in co-curating with older generations and understand intangibility within tangible craft and the relationships between TH and ICH. Traditional musical instruments and the intangible music which operated through the instruments are connected and embodied. 

On the other side, political dimension is more associated with production side. Among pieces of literature on heritage production, Oh, J. (2021), Chen, Y. et al. (2020), and Jeong, S. (2019) are the selected ones to answer my question. Registering heritage in the list UNESCO is the production of an institutional system. The designation is the process of acquiring status under the system of international organization. Among countries that ratified the convention, South Korea articulated a debate regarding production side by registering many heritages and researching it.

Contrary to this, the literature discussing questions concerning heritage consumption is Bak, S. et al., (2019) and Kim, S. (2020). The linkage of these kinds of literature are impacts of enlisting individual tourists and practitioners. By using a comparative perspective between production and consumption, it is possible to examine Arirang song as a means of problem-solving solution in Korean society.

On the production side, Oh, J. (2021) inspected research trends and keywords in cultural heritage and anthropology fields from 2002 to 2020. Since the ICH convention in 2003 initiated by UNESCO, articles regarding ICH actively started to be published. When considering the quantified method is relatively rare in the field, this article using quantitative data helps understand the network of articles from international cultural heritage-related journals.

Among analyzed keyword, the most frequent word was “community”, “practice”, and “culture”. The new keyword “safeguarding” was added to the existing analyzed keyword. In particular, in the safeguarding process of practice, community-oriented approach is crucial. The rising importance of safeguarding is reflected in the analysis of the trend. Safeguarding means a more active process with an aim for preservation than the word “preservation” which was used before. The role of transmitters in in regional Arirang community is examined by Oh, J. (2019).

 Not only individuals and communities, but also nation-state as a bigger stakeholder employ heritage as a source of power. According to the descriptive analysis of Chen et al. (2020), heritage is the soft power of the country, and it is a part of a nation’s identity. Authors descriptively analyze research trends since agreement of the convention in each region, Asia, Europe, and the United States. Specifically, Asia is focused on the protection side.

Nevertheless scholars in other areas are more focused on critical combinations with other fields. ICH is impacted by modern advancement in society, and for innovation adopting technology is required.

The field became more interdisciplinary. According to the author, the ICH research is unstructured. What this research promotes is the construction of related studies.

 In that the song provides means of expression to all kinds of people, it contributes to problem-solving solutions in social division situations in South Korea. ICH nomination affects to increase of tourism, hence it also brings economical benefits (Bak, S. et al., 2019).

The current state of knowledge is divided into producing lists and consuming already listed ones. What I have found is the importance of safeguarding as a process-oriented approach across all generations. Representative list particularly Arirang song includes all classes of people in different areas (Kim, S. 2020).

Its representativeness of all classes, particularly of minority people’s layer adds diversity to authenticity in intangibility and it mediates dialectic relations through its performative practice. Peace can be sustained through respect and coexistence of diversity within society. From these findings, I can answer that it contributes to solving the conflict situation in Korea in case of ICH is safeguarded properly, and involved with multitudinous people.

From this, I can bring that new question as follows; As Korean Society becomes more individualized with the development of social network technology, still musical heritage based on shared identity in community works to mediate conflict situation in recent times? How has the impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on musical heritage in Korean Society changed the transmission of Arirang as a “living heritage” in daily life? 

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

References 

De-Miguel-Molina, M., & Santamarina-Campos, V. (2021). Conclusions: Music as an Economic, Social, Cultural, Creative and Resilient Activity. Music as Intangible Cultural Heritage Economic, Cultural and Social Identity, 139. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-76882-9_9

Sangmee Bak, Chung-Ki Min & Taek-Seon Roh (2019). Impacts of UNESCO-listed tangible and intangible heritages on tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36(8), 917-927. DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2019.1658034

Seong-mi Jeong. (2019). (Co-) curating the rural traditions and material culture of villages: a case study in Wanju, Korea. International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 14, 173-185.  DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2019..14.010 https://www.ijih.org/volumes/article/845

Oh Jung-shim. (2019). A Study of Intangible Cultural Heritage Communities through a Social Network Analysis-Focused on the Item of Jeongseon Arirang. MUNHWAJAE Korean Journal of Cultural Heritage Studies, 52(3), 172-187. https://doi.org/10.22755/kjchs.2019.52.3.172

Oh Jung-shim. (2021). Research flows and results of studies on intangible cultural heritage: A network analysis of articles in related international journals, 2002–2020. The International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 16, 18-29. DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2021..16.004

Kim Seon-woo. (2020). The Subcultural Characteristics and Consumption Forms of Arirang — With a focus on its history from the Enlightenment period to colonial period — . THE JOURNAL OF MODERN LITERARY THEORY, 81, 31-57. DOI : 10.22273/SMLT.81.2 https://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3790701

Yulong Chen, Ke Xue & Megan Dai (2020). The academics of Intangible Cultural Heritage – knowledge map analysis based on CiteSpace (2003-2019). International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 15, 181- 198. DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2020..15.012

Intangible Cultural Heritage in social division circumstances of South Korea on production and consumption side

작성자:

Intangible Cultural Heritage in social division circumstances of South Korea on production and consumption side

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

  1. Introduction

 Intangible Cultural Heritage(ICH) is distinguished as Representative List and Safeguarding List. One of the Representative List in ROK is Arirang folk song. As it transfers from national to international list, the song contributes to construction of peace between different stakeholders of South Korea in a conflict situation, particularly in social dogma and class division situation.

The scopes of conflict include socio-economical, inter-provincial, and bureaucracy-originated. Those three constituents are all relation-oriented. In Korea, legacy of prior caste system in Joseon period had been abolished in law.

However, still pervasive are social division and discriminations toward minorities. Within each divided Korea, Arirang consists of about 3600 various versions based on different regions in Korea. It is a symbol of cultural diversity. Then does the representative song contribute to problem solving solutions in social division situations of South Korea?

 The history of ICH field is relatively short comparing other cultural fields. When considering community hasn’t been defined in the convention of UNESCO, what kind of individual would be included and excluded is need to be considered in a community-based approach. In ICH field, recent studies are focused on influence of ratification among six groups of countries and possibility of interdisciplinary study with other fields. In the definition of UNESCO, ICH is an inclusive concept as it means knowledge, oral tradition, music, language, etc.

Intangibility of heritage is recent paradigm and it has meta cultural nature, which means it goes beyond cultures of community and UNESCO heritage list is for humanity. Although its history as an academic field is short, the history of Heritage itself is so long as it even went back to birth of human. In case of Arirang, as “living heritage”, it has undergone continuous change passing through different generations. Anyone can participate in the improvisation of it.

The value of Arirang lies in the inclusiveness of different categories of identity. Different levels of stakeholders; individuals, the ruling class, and the nation used Arirang for the reproduction of identity. Particularly, the song was a critical tool for the subject who seek inter-subject exchange and diversity.

2. Literature Review

 Under many other ICH domain, performing arts contains many instruments as the music is the most universal human expression. In it, firstly political dimension is associated with production side. On the other side, economical dimension is associated with consumption side.

Among pieces of literature on heritage production, Oh, J. (2021), Chen, Y. et al. (2020), and Jeong, S. (2019) are the selected ones to answer my question.

Registering heritage in the list UNESCO is the production of an institutional system. The designation is the process of acquiring status under the system of international organization.

Among countries that ratified the convention, South Korea articulated a debate regarding production side by registering many heritages and researching it. Contrary to this, the literature discussing questions concerning heritage consumption is Bak, S. et al., (2019) and Kim, S. (2020).

The linkage of these kinds of literature are impacts of enlisting individual tourists and practitioners. By using a comparative perspective between production and consumption, it is possible to examine Arirang song as a means of problem-solving solution in Korean society.

 On consumption of heritage side, according to Bak, S. et al., (2019), tourists who don’t have conditions to travel cannot contribute to an increase in heritage tourism. In the literature, the status of individuals was quantified as intervening and control variables. Control variables include tourists’ health, education level, and urban or rural area where they live in. In the 72 countries which ratified 2003 convention, inscription of heritage affected positively to enlargement of heritage tourism.

In the study of Jeong, S (2019), the author shows class system of earlier periods in South Korea remained a legacy in detail of tangible and intangible heritage. Tangible craft items used in ritual and skill making of it both correlated to individuals’ status. Particularly marriage ritual in Wanju rural area in South Korea was used as a case study.

Since the liberation of Korea, Tangible Heritage and ICH weren’t fully transferred to the young generation. According to the author, Individuals need to participate in co-curating with older generations and understand the relationships between TH and ICH. What is promoted is the sustainability of heritage. 

 On the production side, Oh, J. (2021) inspected research trends and keywords in cultural heritage and anthropology fields from 2002 to 2020. Since the ICH convention in 2003 initiated by UNESCO, articles regarding ICH actively started to be published.

When considering the quantified method is relatively rare in the field, this article using quantitative data helps understand the network of articles from international cultural heritage-related journals. Among analyzed keyword, the most frequent word was ‘community’, ’practice’, and ’culture’.

The new keyword ‘safeguarding’ was added to the existing analyzed keyword. Particularly, in the safeguarding process of practice, community-oriented approach is crucial. The rising importance of safeguarding is reflected in the analysis of the trend. Safeguarding means a more active process with an aim for preservation than the word ‘preservation’ which was used before.

 Not only individuals and communities but also nation-state as a bigger stakeholder employ heritage as a source of power. According to the descriptive analysis of Chen et al. (2020), heritage is the soft power of the country, and it is a part of a nation’s identity. Authors descriptively analyze research trends since agreement of the convention in each region, Asia, Europe, and the United States. Specifically, Asia is focused on the protection side. Nevertheless scholars in other areas are more focused on critical combinations with other fields.

ICH is impacted by modern advancement in society, and for innovation adopting technology is required. According to the author, the ICH research is unstructured. What this research promotes is the construction of related studies.

 As instruments of the convention, music constitutes a key part of heritage studies. As the most popular song in Korea, enjoyment of Arirang in sub-culture was depicted by Kim, S. (2020). In South Korea, among many versions, currently, 36 versions of Arirang are known. Mainly, there are four types of Arirang; Jeongseon, Jindo, Milyang, and Bonzo. Heterogeneous local identity and national identity transferred into International lists. The popular, subcultural version contrast with Nationalistic version. That version goes back to colonial period of Korea.

The nationalistic version was counter-culture resisting Japan. Under legacy of imperialism, civil people expressed their emotions through song. Bonzo version is representative mass, main culture of nation. It served as a symbol, medium of Korean ethnics rather than message itself. In Marx’s terms the class struggle, one of the forms of it is ideological. The mean of cultural production is controlled by cultural elites in institutions. Lower classes of people struggled with inability of accessing cultural means but in case of Arirang, it provided means for local communities to be connected with national and international institutions up until present day.  

 In that the song provide means of expression to all kinds of people, it contribute as problem-solving solution in social division situations of South Korea. ICH nomination affects to increase of tourism, hence it also brings economical benefit (Bak, S. et al., 2019). The current state of knowledge is divided into producing lists and consuming already listed ones. To add on, the field became more interdisciplinary and impacted by modern civilization (Chen et al., 2020).

What I have found is the importance of safeguarding as a process-oriented approach across all generations. Representative list particularly Arirang song appropriated all classes of people in different area (Kim, S. 2020).

In this regard, young generation of individuals on the consumption side and the young practitioners on production side can coexist and contribute to sustainability in conflict situations through changes. Representativeness of all classes, particularly minority people adds a diverse layer to authenticity. Respect and coexistence of diversity within society bring peace. 

 From these findings, I can answer that in case of ICH is safeguarded properly, it contribute to solving the conflict situation in Korea.

Then even though ICH has many possibilities, why there are not many young practitioners (Jeong, S., 2019) who wanted to be cultural bearers or living human treasures? Does the age gap in cultural bearers result in social division situations in South Korea?

Cultural Heritage Source Download

References 

Sangmee Bak, Chung-Ki Min & Taek-Seon Roh (2019). Impacts of UNESCO-listed tangible and intangible heritages on tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36(8), 917-927. DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2019.1658034

Seong-mi Jeong. (2019). (Co-) curating the rural traditions and material culture of villages: a case study in Wanju, Korea. International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 14, 173-185.  DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2019..14.010 https://www.ijih.org/volumes/article/845

Oh Jung-shim. (2021). Research flows and results of studies on intangible cultural heritage: A network analysis of articles in related international journals, 2002–2020. The International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 16, 18-29. DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2021..16.004

Kim Seon-woo. (2020). The Subcultural Characteristics and Consumption Forms of Arirang — With a focus on its history from the Enlightenment period to colonial period — . THE JOURNAL OF MODERN LITERARY THEORY, 81, 31-57. DOI : 10.22273/SMLT.81.2 https://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/thesis-view.asp?key=3790701

Yulong Chen, Ke Xue & Megan Dai (2020). The academics of Intangible Cultural Heritage – knowledge map analysis based on CiteSpace (2003-2019). International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 15, 181- 198. DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2020..15.012

Arirang song as a mean of problem solving in social division circumstances of South Korea on production and consumption side

작성자:

Title

Arirang song as a mean of problem solving in social division circumstances of South Korea on production and consumption side

Cultural Heritage Source Download
  1. Introduction

To begin with, Intangible Cultural Heritage(ICH) is distinguished as Representative List and Safeguarding List. One of the Representative List in ROK is Arirang folk song.

As it transfers from national to international list, the song contributes to construction of peace between different stakeholders in South Korea in a conflict situation, particularly in social dogma and class division situation.

The scopes of conflict include socio-economical, inter-provincial, and bureaucracy-originated. Those three constituents are all relation-oriented. In Korea, legacy of prior caste system in Joseon period had been abolished in law. However, still social division and discriminations are pervasive.

Within each divided Korea, Arirang consists of about 3600 various versions based on different regions in Korea. It is a symbol of cultural diversity.

Then does the song contribute to problem solving solutions in social division situations in South Korea?

The history of ICH field is relatively short comparing other cultural fields. Since the ICH convention in 2003 initiated by UNESCO, articles regarding ICH actively started to be published. In this writing, I have adopted 2003 convention, listed heritage, and community. When considering community hasn’t been defined in the convention of UNESCO, what kind of individual would be included and excluded is need to be considered in a community-based approach.

2. Existing studies

In ICH field, recent studies are focused on influence of ratification among six groups of countries and possibility of interdisciplinary study with other fields. In the definition of UNESCO, ICH is an inclusive concept as it means knowledge, oral tradition, music, language, etc. Intangibility of heritage is recent paradigm and it has meta cultural nature. It goes beyond cultures of community and UNESCO heritage ist is for humanity. But in the international list, emphasis on “Exceptional value” has been criticized because practices in danger are much more urgent.

Other than urgency, Although its history as an academic field is short, the history of Heritage itself is so long as it even went back to birth of human. As “living heritage”, up till the present day, Arirang has undergone continuous change passing through different generations.

The song is inclusive, divergent, and performative. Anyone can participate in the improvisation of it. The value of Arirang lies in the inclusiveness of different categories of identity. Different levels of stakeholders; individuals, the ruling class, and the nation used Arirang for the reproduction of identity. Particularly, the song was a critical tool for the subject who seek inter-subject exchange and diversity.

Among literatures on heritage production, Jung-shim, O. (2021), Yulong, Chen. (2020) and Jeong, S. (2019) are the selected one to answer my question. Registering heritage in the list of UNESCO is the production on institutional system.

Designation is the process of acquiring status under the system of international organization. Among countries which ratified the convention, South Korea articulated debate regarding production side by registering many heritages and researching it.

Contrary with this, the literature discussing questions concerning heritage consumption is Bak, S., Min, C. K., & Roh, T. S. (2019) and Seonwoo, Kim. (2020). The linkage of these literatures are impacts of enlisting on individual tourists and practitioners. By using a comparative perspective between production and consumption, it is possible to examining Arirang song as a mean of problem solving solution in Korea society.

On consumption of heritage side, according to Sang mee Bak et al. (2019), tourists who have don’t have condition to travel cannot contribute to increasing in heritage tourism. In the literature, the status of individuals was quantified as intervening and control variables.

Control variables include tourists’ health, education level, and urban or rural area where they live in. In the 72 countries which ratified 2003 convention, inscription of heritage affected positively to enlargement of heritage tourism. In the study of Seong-mi Jeong (2019), the author shows class system of earlier periods in South Korea remained a legacy in detail of tangible and intangible heritage.

Tangible craft items used in ritual and skill making of it both correlated to individuals’ status. Particularly marriage ritual in Wanju rural area in South Korea was used as a case study. Since the liberation of Korea, Tangible Heritage and ICH weren’t fully transferred to the young generation.

According to the author, Individuals need to participate in co-curating with older generations and understand the relationships between TH and ICH. What is promoted is the sustainability of heritage.

On the production side, Oh Jung-shim (2021) inspected research trends and keywords in cultural heritage and anthropology fields. When considering the quantified method is relatively rare in the field, this article using quantitative data helps understand the network of articles from international cultural heritage- related journals.

Among analyzed keyword, the most frequent word was ‘community’, ’practice’, and ’culture’. The new keyword ‘safeguarding’ was added to the existing analyzed keyword. Particularly, in the safeguarding process of practice, a community-oriented approach is crucial.

The rising importance of safeguarding is reflected in the analysis of the trend. Safeguarding means a more active process with an aim for preservation than the word ‘preservation’ which was used before.

Not only individuals and communities but also the country as a bigger stakeholder employ heritage as a source of power. According to the descriptive analysis of Chen et al. (2020), heritage is the soft power of the country, and it is a part of a nation’s identity. Authors descriptively analyze research trends in each region, Asia, Europe, and the United States.

Specifically, Asia is focused on the protection side. But Scholars in other areas are more focused on critical combinations with other fields. This resulted in new discourse and the trend is called Critical Heritage Discourse.

Among popularly cited researchers and institutions, Korean is not included. According to the author, the ICH research is unstructured. What this research promote is the construction of related studies.

As instruments of convention, music constitutes key part in heritage studies. As the most popular song in Korea, enjoyment of Arirang in sub-culture was depicted by Seonwoo Kim (2020). In ROK, Currently 36 versions of Arirang are known. The subcultural version contrast with Nationalistic version. In colonial period of Korea, nationalistic version was counter culture resisting Japan.

Under legacy of imperialism, individuals expressed their emotion through song. Arirang also served as national symbol for struggle.

Bonzo version is representative mass culture of nation. Mainly, there are four types of Arirang; Jeongseon, Jindo, Milyang, Bonzo. In case of the Milling Arirang, ‘the song demonstrates the characteristics of people from Yeongnam region. Heterogeneous local identity and national identity transferred into International lists as instruments of the Convention.

For production of pan-national(all inclusive) identity, subcultural characteristic of Arirang need to be considered in self staging of mass culture. In Marx’s term the class struggle, one of the form of it is in ideological. The mean of cultural production controlled by cultural elites in institution. Civil people struggled with inability of accessing cultural means but in case of Arirang it provided means to local communities to be connected with national and international institution.

Because the song provide means of expression to civil people, it contribute as problem solving solution in social division situations of South Korea. ICH nomination affects to increase of tourism, so it also brings economical benefit, and it is helpful.

The current state of knowledge can be divided into producing lists and consuming already listed ones. What I have found is the importance of safeguarding as a process-oriented approach across all generations.

In conflict circumstances that originated from imperialism and capitalism, Representative list particularly Arirang songs appropriated in popular songs, classic song performances, and commemorative events. In this regard, the young generation of individuals on the consumption side and the young practitioners can coexist and contribute to sustainability in conflict situations through changes.

Representativeness of all classes, particularly minority people adds a diverse layer to authenticity. Respect and coexistence of diversity within society bring peace. From these findings, I can answer that in case of ICH is safeguarded properly contribute to solving the conflict situation in Korea. Then even though ICH has many possibilities, why there are not many young practitioners who wanted to be cultural bearers or living human treasures?

Does the age gap in cultural bearers result in social division situations in South Korea? The word ‘treasure’ seems patrimonial and that seems to be a reason for its low popularity. But for sustainability in future generations, more interest from the younger generation would be requisite.

References

Bak, S., Min, C. K., & Roh, T. S. (2019). Impacts of UNESCO-listed tangible and intangible heritages on tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36(8), 917-927. h t t p s : / / doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2019.1658034

Jeong, S. (2019). (Co-) curating the rural traditions and material culture of villages: a case study in Wanju, Korea. International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 14, 173-185. DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2019..14.010

Jung-shim, O. (2021). Research flows and results of studies on intangible cultural heritage: A network analysis of articles in related international journals, 2002–2020. The International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 16, 18-29. DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2021..16.004

Seonwoo, Kim. (2020). The Subcultural Characteristics and Consumption Forms of Arirang — With a focus on its history from the Enlightenment period to colonial period — . THE JOURNAL OF MODERN LITERARY THEORY, 81, 31-57. https://kiss.kstudy.com/thesis/ thesis-view.asp?key=3790701

Yulong, Chen. (2020). The academics of Intangible Cultural Heritage-knowledge map analysis based on CiteSpace (2003-2019) DOI : 10.35638/ijih.2020..15.012

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

Reproduction of Common, Shared Identity in South and North Korea performed through intersubjective Arirang song

작성자:

Title:

Reproduction of Common, Shared Identity in South and North Korea performed through intersubjective Arirang song

1. Introduction
Context and background of research is the colonial period of Korea. Prior studies have noted the importance of Arirang as a mediation tool while using the metaphor of lens, and mirror.

It mediated between insiders and outsiders. There are deficiencies in research about grassroots group relations with authoritative subjects. Since the colonial period, it started to change from a popular song of ordinary people to a folk song of the nation. In the shared history between Korea and Japan, different subjects gazed at themselves and each other through Arirang. Arirang which is Representative List and shared Intangible Cultural Heritage of both South and North Korea.


About 3600 various versions based on different regions share the folk song within each divided Korea. It can be revised, or remixed by anyone. Arirang was practiced by all classes of people. While passing multiple time and place, what Arirang represent became more heterogeneous.

What is already known about problem regarding with Arirang is it doesn’t reflect the identity of all stakeholders in Korea peninsular experiencing class related, regional conflict. Existing claim of nationalist is that “the members of the nation share a common identity”. The authentic existence in a shared heritage was widespread after the post-colonial era.(Cultural theory, 255p) What is missing from current knowledge about ICH and Arirang is that Arirang is a medium of identity.

The rationale and importance of this research is that in representing a symbol of national identity, mutual respect among different community is necessary.

The creation of higher forms of common identity, “Korean-ness” had been managed by Cultural Heritage Administrative in ROK. Arirang in ROK became cultural asset in 2015 after get a status of ICH by UNESCO in 2012. DPRK made it included in ICH list in 2014.

In acquiring status of mass culture which supported by nation, its subcultural characteristics which practiced by local community did important role. For production of pan-national(all inclusive) identity, subcultural characteristic of Arirang need to be considered in self staging of mass culture.

2.Hypothesis

Hypothesis is that through reflection, performing of heterogeneous identity, Arirang contribute to the construction of peace in Korea peninsular. I hypothesize that the shared identity between grassroots group(practicing community) and authoritative institution contribute to overcoming postcolonial consciousness.

And the other hypothesize is that performance of Arirang song affect to existance of community and their identity in multiple space and time layer.

3. Questions

Questions I’d like to provide answer are as follows. How do the different subject parties experience the relation and perform the identity through ICH? How regional communities use song in conflict situation, for peace? Since modernization of Korea, since 1945, does theindividual’s socio-economic class, status differentiation affect to experience of ICH in various region?

The objective of this study is for exploring new possibility of expressing “common shared(identity) of Korean” in the relation of different parties who practice and administer Arirang folk songs.

The problem with shared identity between communities and institutions is the subjection of particular party in ideological conflict. In this study, a tentative definition for “Common(Shared) identity of Korean” is Koreanness shared among multiple groups in the increased flow of socio-cultural interaction.

With the increased flow in the current age, the Korean identity is shared by multiple categories of group and regarding institutions such as CHA in South Korea and UNESCO.

-Literature Review

According to UNESCO, Intangible Cultural Heritage is very inclusive concept as it mean knowledge, oral tradition, music, language, etc. The history of ICH field is relatively short comparing other cultural fields. Since the ICH convention in 2003 initiated by UNESCO, article regarding ICH actively started to published. Although its history as academic field is short, the history of Heritage itself is so long as it even went back to birth of human.

Then since modernization of Korea, since 1945, does the individual’s socio-economic class, status differentiation affect to experience of ICH in various region? Yes.

According to Sang mee Bak et al. (2019), tourists who have don’t have opportunity to access cannot contribute to increase of heritage tourism. Here the status of individual was quantified as intervening and control variable. Control variables include tourist’s health, education level, and urban or rural area where they lives in. In the 72 country which ratified 2003 convention, inscription of heritage affected positively to increase of heritage tourism. But it was intervened by status or socio-economic class of tourist.

On the other hand, in the study of Seong-mi Jeong (2019), the author shows class system of earlier period in South Korea still remained as legacy in detail of tangible and intangible heritage. Here the craft item used in marriage ritual and skill making of it both correlated to individuals’ status. In ritual such as marriage, the list of item was different according to class and social status. Since modernization of Korea, this Tangible Heritage and ICH wasn’t fully transfered to young generation. Similarly, the rising importance of safeguarding reflected in analysis of trend.

Safeguarding means more active process in an aim for preservation than the word ‘preservation’ which used before. The new keyword ‘safeguarding’ was added to existing analyzed keyword.
More longer period was inspected by Oh Jung-shim (2021).

When considering quantified method is relatively rare in cultural heritage and anthropology field, this article using quantitative data is helpful for understanding network of articles from international cultural heritage-related journals.

Among analyzed keyword, the most frequent word was ‘community’, ’practice’, and ’culture’.
When Intangible Cultural Practices of Community are in danger, in its safeguarding process, community oriented approach is crucial.

Not only individuals, but also community and country as bigger stakeholder employ heritage as soft power. According to the analysis of Chen et al. (2020), heritage is soft power of country, and it is a part of nation’s identity.

Authors descriptively analyze research trend in each region, Asia, Europe and the United States. More specifically, Scholars in USA discussed the interaction of art, politics, and identity with UNESCO and the privileges of the States Parties to the Convention (Lixinski:2011). When considering community haven’t defined in the convention, what kind of individual would be included and excluded is need to be considered in community based approach.

What I have found through chosen literature is that
In country which ratified the convention, new inscription of heritage affects to increase of heritage consumption, but it was intervened by status of tourists. In local area in South Korea, specific characteristics of heritage become different according to class. In contrast to the Safeguarding List, Representative List don’t really required safeguarding process.

How these differences impact the findings and the state of knowledge? This difference impact the characteristic of Representative List. In case of Arirang folk song of both South and North Korea, as it was popular by all classes of people, it was no need of safeguarding. Its characterstic as sub-culture was described by Seonwoo Kim (2020).

Among many versions of Arirang, Bonzo Arirang is the most representative and popular one. Contrary to this, there is a subcultural version of Arirang exist. The main focus is the subcultural characteristics among various version of Arirang.

Within each divided Korea, Arirang consist of about 3600 various version based on a different region in Korea and anyone can participate in the revision. The song has multiple statuses; national, and international. The value of Arirang lies in the inclusiveness of different categories of identity. When the Subculture most active is it works as a counterculture.

The subject who lies below performs a particular version of Arirang. Contrary to this, The subject in institution use the nationalistic version of Arirang Bonzo for the association of nation. The performance of Arirang reproduced the character of anti-ideological- imperialism, and capitalism. It was a critical tool for the sub-subject.

The object transformed from a loyal family to Japanese. Different parties- individuals, the ruling class, and the nation performed Arirang differently and reproduced Arirang for their reproduction of identity.

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-Research design and methodology

-Implications and contribution of the study to knowledge

-References

Jeong, S. (2019). (Co-) curating the rural traditions and material culture of villages: a case study in Wanju, Korea. International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 14, 173-185.
Jung-shim, O. (2021). Research flows and results of studies on intangible cultural heritage: A network analysis of articles in related international journals, 2002–2020. The International Journal of Intangible Heritage, 16, 18-29.
Yulong, Chen. (2020). The academics of Intangible Cultural Heritage-knowledge map analysis based on CiteSpace (2003-2019)
Bak, S., Min, C. K., & Roh, T. S. (2019). Impacts of UNESCO-listed tangible and intangible heritages on tourism. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 36(8), 917-927.
Seonwoo, Kim. (2020). The Subcultural Characteristics and Consumption Forms of Arirang — With a focus on its history from the Enlightenment period to colonial period — . THE JOURNAL OF MODERN LITERARY THEORY, 81, 31-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.22273/ SMLT.81.2

Atkins, E. T (2007). The Dual Career of “Arirang”: The Korean Resistance Anthem That Became a Japanese Pop Hit. The Journal of Asian Studies, 66(3), 645-687. DOI:10.1017/ S0021911807000927
Atkins, E. T. (2010). Chp 4. The First K-Wave: Koreaphilia in Imperial Japanese Popular Culture. Robertson, J.(Ed.). Primitive Selves: Koreana in the Japanese Colonial Gaze, 1910-1945. University of California Press https://www.ucpress.edu/book/9780520266742/primitive- selves
Duranti, A. (2010). Husserl, intersubjectivity and anthropology. Anthropological theory, 10(1-2), 16-35. https://doi.org/10.1177/1463499610370517

Dragojlovic, A. (2016). Chp4. A Balinese Colonial Drama without the Balinese? Interethnic Dynamics in Post-Colonial Commemorations, Beyond Bali: Subaltern Citizens and Post- Colonial Intimacy (pp. 127-148). Amsterdam University Press. https://doi.org/ 10.5117/9789462980648
Horowitz, L. S. (2016). Rhizomic resistance meets arborescent assemblage: UNESCO World Heritage and the disempowerment of indigenous activism in New Caledonia. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 106(1), 167-185. https://www.jstor.org/stable/ 45387742
Schramm, K.(2015). Chp 27. Heritage, Power and Ideology. Waterton, E. & Watson, S.(Ed.). The Palgrave handbook of contemporary heritage research. (pp. 442-457). PALGRAVE MACMILLAN. DOI 10.1007/978-1-137-2935-6
Seonwoo, Kim. (2020). The Subcultural Characteristics and Consumption Forms of Arirang — With a focus on its history from the Enlightenment period to colonial period — . THE JOURNAL OF MODERN LITERARY THEORY, 81, 31-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.22273/ SMLT.81.2

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

The dynamic of global Intangible Cultural Heritage research

작성자:
  1. Inroduction

The dynamic of global Intangible Cultural Heritage research have a characteristic of “pluriversatility” of heritage(Salazar 2010:145). The fields become more inter- and multi-disciplinary. The notion was originated from ‘Pluriverse’ and it was claimed by Arturo Escobar as a helpful way to redefinition of “postdevelopment”. 

The similarities of these studies are that the UNESCO conventions are the basement and starting point of studies. Materiality and intangibility of heritage is interconnected.  Whereas class difference don’t necessarily function negatively.

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Seonwoo Kim distinguish popular version of Arirang folk song with subcultural version. 

Does the individual’s socio economic class, status differentiation affect to experience of ICH in different city of South Korea? Does the specific class identities are articulated and communicated through heritage? How does the different subject parties experience the relation and perform the identity through ICH?

Sang mee Bak et al. (2019) demonstrated that UNESCO inscription affected to increase of tourism . For manifestation, authors used quantitive data. The dependent variable is an indicator of  international tourist entrance increase.

2. Variables

The independent variable is the number of heritage inscription. As the indicator manifested that the entrance rate to 72 countries which ratified UNESCO convention increase, authors could have approve the positive relation between inscription and tourism. However, the relation is not linear as many intervening and control variables are exist.

Control variables include tourist’s health, education level, and urban or rural area where they lives in. Future possible research suggested here is that when TH and ICH are closely related, how tourism would be affected by?

Among the five domains(e.g. oral traditions and expressions including language, performing arts, social practices, rituals and festive events,  knowledge and practices, traditional craftsmanship) of ICH as classified in the 2003 UNESCO Convention, how does the way they affect to tourism different? How does the six groups of countries as classified in the UNESCO Convention different in its relation of inscription and tourism?

 As the author already noted, limitation of this study is that it only analyzed paper that written in English, so it excluded culturally rich countries where don’t use English.

The term Intangible Cultural Heritage(ICH) originated from proclamation in 2001, 2003 and 2005 adopted by UNESCO. 

scholars in UK focus on the relationship between music (Roberts et al.: 2014), festivals[Ferdinand et al.:2013], and cultural heritage.

Seong-mi Jeong (2019) examine connectivity between tangible heritage(TH) and intangible cultural heritage(ICH). In case of heritage that prepared for marriage, the upper class which called yang ban learned skill making handicraft items. Here the skill is ICH and the item is tangible heritage.

The network of ICH practicing regional communities affect to in-group identity of individuals who belong to the each community?

Identity of common people is shared within or outside of the community. In case the communities are displaced, identification with the place near the community occur.

Then the status difference between different communities makes multiplicity. Expression of identity depends on the ‘space’ and ‘place’ of the interaction.

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

Decolonized South Korea-Japan reparation in new era

작성자:

Title :

Decolonized South Korea-Japan reparation in new era

1.

In the eastern, the empire of Japan was a colonizer, great power. South Korea, Taiwan, and other

regions experienced colonization by Japan. Between South Korea and Japan, postcolonial conflicts

remained, because of the colonial atrocities and their compensation. One of the faults is the military

comfort women issue and the other is the forced labor case. I’m opposed to paying and receiving

reparation fees in former colonial relations. The current government of the former colonial power

needs to find a different method of compensation, such as giving up national claims toward the

former colony. For decolonized bilateral relations, the required are fair deals and diplomatic

consistency regardless of political spectrum. In the past, Japan was much richer than South Korea in

1965, therefore equitable deal was impossible. The treaty in 2015 for resolving the comfort women

issue was “annulled when government administration changed from conservative to liberal”(Young-

hwan Chong, 2017).

The one who agrees with monetary reparation has argued that a treaty and initiation of the

foundation for compensation is a basis for building new peaceful relations between former

colonizers and colonies.

By receiving a small portion of surplus value that the colonizer took, the

formerly colonized nation-state can recover the faith toward formerly colonizer, and both parties

can enter into a de-colonized relationship. It includes trust-based dialogue and exchange. Also,

advocators say that receiving money can be a realistic compensation to victims.

Other than the word of apology, it can be a practical help for overcoming the shameful memory. The South Korean

administration which pursued the 2015 treaty said that making a deal with money is not a harm to

the comfort women’s honor. In addition, proponents say that in the pursuit of justice of WW2,

colonial responsibility wasn’t fully discussed in the past trials such as Tokyo Trial. As the Japanese

Empire lost the war, the responsibility of war was mainly considered by war winners. Particularly

comfort women issues were only partially acknowledged by the court. So separate economic

compensation is required for the decolonized bilateral relation.

Even though advocators of monetary compensation disagree, there are reasons to reject the

monetary deal. Firstly, In the building of future-oriented relations, perceiving money can give

legitimacy to intentional negation later. Japanese ultra-nationalism willingly forgoes their

dehumanization act. After receiving money, even if Japan insists unjust claim, it would be difficult

to do strong protest. The second reason is that money cannot fully compensate for the shame

feelings of victims and it cannot be exactly quantifiable. The monetary reparation is difficult to be

directly distributed to victims in fair way. Also, The range of victims is grandiose. Other than

comfort women and exploited laborers, whole Koreans are included in the wider term of the victim

under the Japanization policy. The last reason is that in the discussion of colonial responsibility,

other than monetary reparation, many kinds of compensation are possible as follows; historical,

cultural, and territorial etc.

For instance, in the 2015 treaty, Japan government requested the removal of comfort women

sculptures in South Korea as a condition of the deal for monetary compensation. In education

material, Japan was reluctant to teach about comfort women and mentioned it only briefly.

Furthermore, in the 1965 treaty and related agreements, Japan government paid 300,000 won per

death of a victim. But this monetary assistance didn’t go back directly to victims, young generations

feel that there was not enough restoration. Besides, while proceeding with the 2015 treaty, the

Korean government requested comfort women to “receive money from the Japanese government”.

(Le, T. 2019). In this case, giving money and being forced to receive money cause shame feelings

again. Lastly, they can change history education or build museums that aim to correct aggression

during wartime. In Japan’s heritage inscription of the Sado mine heritage, Japan highlighted the

industrial revolution instead of fully explaining their dehumanization act, forced labor case. As

different ways of compensation, Japan can retract the mine from the UNESCO heritage list. Or they

can give up Dok Do/Takeshima island. Japan’s rationale is that after liberation, “the island was not

included in the territory which should be returned”(Hee-min Kim, Jin-man Cho. 2011). In the

national claim, the basis is having ownership which is persistence of colonialism.

More specifically, Receiving money from Japan has a possibility of intensifying the dominant

status of the formal colonizer. Because the surplus-value which can be given to the former colony

could have been produced through colonization. Under capitalism, “colonizing other countries can

be understood as possessing the means of production”(Boucher, D. 2019).

But Japan considers itself a victim because of the nuclear bombing experience. “Japan belongs to the Eastern shame cultures”

(Hein, P. 2010), rather than guilt cultures like Germany. Even if Japan pays money, it is an attempt

to overcome the shame of losing in war by giving money to their former colony. So while

respecting the national consciousness of Japan, both offender and victim need to find a decolonized

way of compensation.

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In conclusion, I’m opposed to monetary reparation because of these reasons follows; the Inability

of constructing decolonized relations through economic compensation, the possibility of insulting

victims again, and alternative compensation such as historical and territorial, other than monetary.

Suggesting these reasons is for building a culture of peace while pursuing restorative justice and

accountability. As South Korea became included as a developed country in 2021, it would possible

to make a more fair treaty later. In 1965, when a treaty for restoration of relations was initiated,

“Japan was much richer than South Korea”(Le, T. 2019). The specific conditions in the future treaty

need to meet the claim of both political right and left-wing in South Korea. As the 2015 treaty

which pursued by South Korean conservative government became annulled in later, by liberal one.

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

References

Boucher, D. (2019). Reclaiming history: dehumanization and the failure of

decolonization, International Journal of Social Economics, 46(11), 1250-1263. https://doi-

org.sproxy.hufs.ac.kr/10.1108/IJSE-03-2019-0151

Eun-jung Kim. (2021 December 28). S. Korea urges Japan to retract push to list mine linked to

forced labor as World Heritage site. Yonhap News Agency. Retrieved April 22, 2022, from

https://en.yna.co.kr/view/AEN20211228006351325

Hee-min Kim, Jin-man Cho. (2011). A New Approach to a Territorial Dispute Involving a Former

Colonizer-Colony Pair: The Case of the Dokdo/Takeshima Dispute between Korea and Japan.

Korea Observer, 42(3), 431-459. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

289878699_A_New_Approach_to_a_Territorial_Dispute_Involving_a_Former_Colonizer-

Colony_Pair_The_Case_of_the_DokdoTakeshima_Dispute_between_Korea_and_Japan

Hein, P. (2010). Patterns of war reconciliation in Japan and Germany. A comparison. East Asia: An

International Quarterly, 27(2), 145-164. https://doi-org.sproxy.hufs.ac.kr/10.1007/

s12140-010-9106-z

3202048013 KimDaha

Le, T. (2019). Negotiating in Good Faith: Overcoming Legitimacy Problems in the Japan-South

Korea Reconciliation Process. The Journal of Asian Studies, 78(3), 621-644. https://doi.org/

10.1017/S0021911819000664

So-youn Kim. (2021 March 31). Japanese textbooks don’t acknowledge “comfort women” system’s

coercive nature. Hankyoreh. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://english.hani.co.kr/arti/

english_edition/e_international/989040.html

UN agency upgrades Korea’s status to developed economy. (2021 July 05). Korea.net. Retrieved

April 19, 2022, from https://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/policies/view?articleId=200509

UNESCO says Japan failed to provide sufficient explanation on forced labor. (2021 July 22).

Yonhap News. Retrieved April 17, 2022, from https://en.yna.co.kr/view/

AEN20210722012000320.

Young-hwan Chong. (2017). The Tokyo Trial and the Question of Colonial Responsibility.

International Journal of Korean History, 22(1), 77-105. https://doi.org/10.22372/

ijkh.2017.22.1.77

Arirang with peace, justice and strong institution for international cooperation

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-Title

<Arirang with peace, justice and strong institution for international cooperation> 

-Table of Contents

  1. Introduction
  2. Literature Review
  3. Main 1)Arirang and peace, justice  2)Arirang and strong institution
  4. Conclusion

1. Introduction

After WW2, the UN made aimed at promoting peace, and for that international cooperation is important. Under the UN, UNESCO is the only agency that registers heritage for humanity.

The international legal instruments for heritage include the 1970 convention, 1972 World Heritage Convention, and 2003 Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention in UNESCO.

According to the 2003 ICH convention, under article 12, it is mentioned at the national level. Under article 16, it is mentioned at the global level. The new form of globalism includes a greater emphasis upon soft power. ICH as soft power can contribute to both national and global society sustainably.

The promotion of cultural diversity for the future generation is an important value in international treaties and legal instruments. The 2003 convention emphasizes the role of ICH in building peace. Goal 16(peace, justice, and strong institutions) of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of International organization focuses on the promotion of peaceful and inclusive societies for all. It emphasis inclusion of all groups.

Being inclusive is becoming more important in ROK. It has been mono-ethnic country, but with the flux of globalization, it is in the process of becoming multicultural society. In this process, nationhood and nation, as well as meanings of belonging are constructed through ICH. By learning Arirang, immigrants can imagine and perform the Korean-ness.

The virtue of Arirang includes free expression, empathy. Anyone can create variation and it can be shared with others. It can be appropriated into any form, media, as the motif. Arirang as Representative List of ROK and DPRK promote diversity, as it has been variated according to a different area.

In Korea peninsular, various communities practicing Arirang coexist within different ideologies, power, and identity. Measuring incentives, states choose a stance between globalism and nationalism.

ROK is more influenced by the liberal form of globalization than the DPRK. DPRK persisted in building independent national identities since the postwar, and it called was Juche Nationalism, although it allied with the Soviet Union, etc. Juche nationalism was the making of identity competitive to other nation-states. It is also for strong institutions and peace between the great powers.  

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2. Literature Review

How collective meanings come to constitute identities has been examined by many scholars. With the rise of the third world, the traditional order of power transformed.

After the failure of Socialism in many countries, for DPRK, conceiving and inventing are the tactics of power to reimagine national identity. DPRK tries to install the power.

The authority conceives and invents forms of agency to disrupt the most visceral installations of power. Regarding nationalism, Benedict Anderson developed the concept of “imagined community”. The nation is a socially constructed community, imagined by the people who identify themselves as part of the nation.

To signify the sense of belonging between ROK and DPRK, shared intangible heritage such as Arirang is necessary. The sense of belonging can be felt or imagined through participating in larger events such as at the Olympic games.

The mass Olympic games have been an important tool from imaginings. Totalitarian regimes, communist regimes, and even liberal states used olympic game. The imagery from the olympic game creates a sense of geographical space. After decolonization, ROK and DPRK tried to build their nationhood differently. DPRK is distinct in its form of independence, although it received aid. Their Juche identity formed national ideology.      

Independent identity representation of DPRK was successful and the way they made their national identity mediated the relation with other south countries. DPRK cooperated with other social states such as the Republic of Guyana. It was one of the new states created after decolonization. The team of the Arirang games collaborated with Guyana.

They held “Gaiana mass game” for the celebration of the 10th year for building the republic. This shows global south-south cooperation, Non-Aligned Movement. DPRK has participated in the movement. NAM advocated cultural diversity and social justice.

They are against all forms of foreign domination including imperialism, colonialism. The movement resisted cultural homogenization. It seeks peace through national independence.

3.  Main 1) Arirang and peace, justice

Arirang registered separately as Representative List of ROK and DPRK. How the performance of Koreannness including ROK and DPRK is represented through Arirang?

How does the national identity is formed through Arirang and contribute to creating peace and justice, solving conflict and injustice in Korea? Regarding conflict, Korea is still in the state of suspending the war. There are exist injustice, inequality according to class and ethnicity. According to 2021 Global Peace Index, ROK ranks 57th, DPRK ranks 151th among 163 countries. It is measured through safety, security and ongoing conflict, etc. Peace can be classified into two. First is negative peace, the absence of war.

The second is positive peace which means institutions that sustain peaceful societies. Under the system of UNESCO ICH, Arirang is contributing dominant factor in keeping positive peace, through the making of imagined national identity. How does it differ in ROK and DPRK is necessary to be examined. Before World Wars, Arirang has been a constitutive part of the community’s identities. In the era of globalization, ROK and DPRK negotiate multiple constitutive identities concerning others.

UNESCO connects Arirang with SDG16 of UN. It matters in addressing global inequality because it is an effort to ‘provide access to justice for all”. In target 16.2 to “end exploitation and all forms of violence against and torture of children”, specific indicators 16.2.1~3 provide guidelines for implementation. My assessment of its strengths as targets is its egalitarian characteristic. It is for meritocracy which social justice works on a fundamental level. Strengths as indicators lie in its specificity. It can contribute to the enlargement of world communication. Without the participation of each nation, the achievement of SDG is impossible. The limitations as targets are the range of application of these targets. In “justice for all”, who are excluded and included? The limitations as indicators are its versatility in the future.

Arirang as a heritage practice, it contributes to creating a shared sense of belonging to a marginalized group. Peace-building endeavors include preventing conflicts and addressing root causes. Korea is in a state of ceasefire. Still, various conflicts exist. Marginalized communities, groups are socially stigmatized, economically exploited, and politically neglected.

The socially stigmatized group are disabled people, and ethnic minorities, etc. The economically exploited group is the proletariat. Politically neglected are refugees, etc.

2) Arirang and strong institution

There are many definitions of a strong institution, but it usually means inclusive, no corruption, and confidence. SDG 16, a particularly strong institution in the UNESCO lies in its uniqueness as the only institution enlisting cultural legacy.

The existing critique about the organization is that it become a so-called heritage regime. Hence the power of the organization grows. If the power is too strong, then the power balance break. This is problematic politically and financially both for member and non-member states.

The merit is that it can maintain consistency, stability, and solidity in its operation, consultation for safeguarding, etc. They provide the 2003 convention which is a crucial framework for ICH.

Strong institution through Arirang is the fulfillment of requirements such as “contribution to ensuring visibility and awareness and to encouraging dialogue”. It promotes the active participation of communities, groups, and individuals. Both put importance on education, performance, and internationalization. In the case of ROK, support for transmission, scholarship, and management would be created.

Support would highlight cultural significance and increase international awareness. In the case of DPRK, for safeguarding Arirang as RL, teaching, continuing vitality, and giving performances of traditional and new versions, etc. are proposed. It promotes international exchange and dialogue through the performance of Arirang. 

Strong institution through Arirang Games in DPRK is building a “new nation” which is the ideal social state, and built a “new man, new value system, new national culture”.

The regime leader tried to renovate their state. The aspiration for the “new” shows that their will to build a new nation is enormous. Arirang Mass Games as a knowledge process, the communist identity which Kim Il Sung wanted to invent was a method of seeking recognition by using spectacles.

Their aim is for building a competitive image as a partner. Actually, through the Arirang games, they could have built a cooperative relationship with the Guiana Republic.

The Guiana Republic was need new national image. The south-south cooperation was beneficial to each other. While for theatrical image building, individual performers were exploited. Constructing an imaginary image widens the gap between the exploitation, mass death situation of the DPRK.

4. Conclusion

I looked into Arirang as Representative List, how it represents the national identity, image of ROK and DPRK. How different stakeholders use Arirang as media for creation of national identity in global age.

Arirang is contributing factor that makes Korea an inclusive society. To ROK, it was a media for exchange and dialogue. To DPRK, it was similar but for that, they were enthusiastic about building a “new” image. Arirang as soft power, as the representation of national identity transcends the postcolonial remnant, truce status, and conflict. 

ROK and DPRK as UNESCO member states should cooperate in multi-level. Because Arirang transcends territorial boundaries.

It should include diaspora communities who practice Arirang in foreign countries. As the flow of people is more dynamic, with the development of infrastructure. It is not within the range of one particular government. How can we make sense of belonging mediated by Arirang?

In the making of national identity, image, and sense of citizenship, the government is the subject or individuals are the ones? Who is included in the group, as a community? The case of the Arirang mass games makes me think that importance of democratic people as the subject who form a national identity.

How can ROK and DPRK both use ICH for positive peacebuilding, inclusive society, and strong institution? What kinds of different form of international cooperation is possible through ICH?

Lots of time passed since Korean War, there is no emotional connection between individuals in the Korean peninsular.

Negative peace, end of the war would bring economic benefit to Korean peninsular because it reconnects land route to the north. But it would not bring positive peace to the Korean peninsula.

In that case, ICH can be the media to make people reimagine the identity, performance of Korean-ness in a more inclusive society. Although Korean peninsular keep divided, if the conflict can be diminished through ICH, then it would bring reduction of cost and economical gain. Quantifying peace; conflict, injustice regarding the ICH is the future challenge.

Lastly, leading transmitters and individual participants in the communities need to collaborate in the longer term.

Arirang doesn’t need urgent safeguarding and is still famous but for resilience in the future, community transmitters and participants have to participate in the processes and access negotiations with their government.

Individuals in communities should be central for the implementation at national, regional, and international levels. It needs a bottom-up, community-based approach.

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–References

2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, October 17, 2003. https://ich.unesco.org/en/convention 

Arirang, lyrical folk song in the Republic of Korea, retrieved from https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/arirang-lyrical-folk-song-in-the-republic-of-korea-00445

Arirang folk song in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, retrieved from https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/arirang-folk-song-in-the-democratic-peoples-republic-of-korea-00914

E, J, R, Cho. (2017). Nation Branding for Survival in North Korea: The Arirang Festival and Nuclear Weapons Tests. Geopolitics, 22(3), 594-622. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2016.1269753 

Foster, M.D. (2015). UNESCO on the Ground. Journal of Folklore Research, 52(2–3), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.2979/jfolkrese.52.2-3.143

Foster, R. J. (1991). Making National Cultures in the Global Ecumene. Annual Review of Anthropology, 20, 235–260. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155801

Institute for Economics & Peace. Global Peace Index 2021: Measuring Peace in a Complex World, Sydney, June 2021. http://visionofhumanity.org/reports

Saifur Rashid. (2020). Intangible Cultural Heritage and Peace-building in Bangladesh. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340698342

Taylor, Moe. (2015). ‘Only a disciplined people can build a nation’:North Korean Mass Games and Third Wordlist in Guyana, 1980-1992. The Asia-Pacific Journal,  13(4), 1-25. https://apjjf.org/2015/13/4/Moe-Taylor/4258.html

The 16 Goals- Sustainable Development, retrieved from https://sdgs.un.org/goals

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

How humans and ecosystems are changing in the age of science and technology

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Title: How humans and ecosystems are changing in the age of science and technology

I examine how humans and ecosystems are changing in the age of science and technology and explore how an ideal network could be built through art based on the ideas of Donna J. Haraway.

In the contemporary world, humans are nurtured with the help of science from the moment they are conceived within their mother’s womb; and from the moment they are born to the moment they die, human beings live in a world surrounded by various forms of exquisitely created technology beneath the vast knowledge system of science.

With the advent of science and technology, traditional life based on primitive and natural ways of living is fading away and being replaced with a new way of life. Both society and ecology are changing in unprecedented ways.

Through science, people have created a worldwide digital network society and as a result, human mental exploration is no longer limited by time and place. In addition, the development of life science technology has enabled humans to transcend their biological limitations and to exist beyond their physical bodies.

However, science has brought many negative aspects with it, including the isolation of individuals and ecosystem destruction, not to mention controversial issues such as genetic manipulation. Changes in human nature caused by science and technology have become a key topic of discussion in modern society and several perspectives have been put forward.

As the first step, this paper reviews the arguments of Marshall McLuhan, Edwin Hutchins, Paul Virilio, and Bernard Stiegler, who investigated changes in human senses in the era of science and technology. 

Additionally, this paper assesses the works of Myron W. Krueger, an early interactive artist, as well as Susanne Anker, a pioneer of bio art, in order to examine how early technology-based arts have changed due to developments in science and technology.

Against the backdrop of the changes brought about in science and technology and the possibility of a new perception of humans, Donna J. Haraway advocates for the dissolution of boundaries by employing creative and complex definitions of human existence altered by technology, and she explores ways to form a new network by building a world of science-art.

In this paper, research was conducted utilizing three concepts introduced by Haraway: “Cyborg”, which refers to changed humans, “Companion Species”, which focuses on relationships, and “Sympoiesis”, which is presented as a new network. Haraway explores the hybrid and denaturalized body that has been recreated in the era of science and technology and introduces the concept of “cyborgs” to redefine humans that are now converging with technology.

Cyborgs accelerate the end of the authority that humans were granted by God, and in this very way, a possibility is created for humans to avoid the end that will be caused by the dichotomous framework we have established for ourselves. A concept of cyborg transcends organisms, matter, and non-materials, breaking down boundaries that were considered impassable in the past, such as those between human-animal, machine-organism, and material-non-material.

After such boundaries are dismantled, the confusion caused by this dismantling is reorganized, using concepts such as “Companion Species” and “Sympoiesis”. With the concept of “Companion Species”, Haraway emphasizes the importance of acknowledging that each side becomes the other’s Companion Species while still stressing the impossibility of creating an unconditional relationship.

Moreover, she focuses on the perception of mortality in this regard. Her discussion extends from new human beings in science and technology to a new ecology, stressing the concept of “Sympoiesis” as a way of coexisting with all creatures on Earth, including humans and non-humans, therefore re-establishing the connections that technology has broken.

The final proposal by Haraway is to create a science-art world as a way of re-connecting broken and destroyed links. This begins with mourning for what has been lost, followed by acts of practice to help the Earth recover and be at peace.

This paper examines the works of Korean installation artist Lee Bul, bio artist Eduardo Kac, and environmental artist Natalie Jeremyjenko in reference to Haraway’s assertions.

Lastly, based on Haraway’s final statement, “I am a compostist”, I examine how death and mourning have changed in the era of science and technology, and accordingly, I suggest compostist art.

Haraway reinterprets today’s world as transformed by science and technology by reading scientific and biological concepts in a new light.

Using an ironic tone, she embraces the heterogeneous entities that were once separated by boundaries, and reads the environment from a different perspective.

Her metaphors are aimed at creatures that have been historically marginalized, and are ultimately about fostering peaceful relationships with such creatures. In a time when ecological problems are gradually emerging, exploring the role of art based on Haraway’s theory may elucidate a solution to the problems mankind faces.

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Keywords:　Science and Technology Society, Science Art Worlding, Deconstruction of Limits, New Networks, Donna J. Haraway

Writer: © DahaKim 김다하

Geography Germs and Ideas

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Title:

Geography Germs and Ideas

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The Republic of Korea is coastal peninsular and it is connected with China. So during the Joseon

period, before ROK became colonized by Japan, Joseon influenced a lot from China, at that the

Myung, Chung. But Japan experienced the Meiji restoration and industrialize period. So it

influenced a lot from Western, U.S.A. And Japan colonized Joseon, currently ROK. As

infrastructure and technology develop, more ways to across the sea developed. Hence, exchange

through sea road expanded.

To add on, because of Korean War, Korea peninsular became divided

with Southern and Northern. Therefore, geographically, for ROK, road to land from the ROK-

China-Europe line became difficult to develop. If it was possible, trade through trains would have

been developed. Institutional colonial legacy in Japan colonial period caused institutions to

persist up today. One example is the language in the administrative term. The architecture of the

Japanese colonial period still remained. Japanese colonial legacy has still remained but the ROK

government tried to get rid of it.

Given that the geography is different, alternative history is possible. If ROK were located inland, it

wouldn’t have been colonized by Japan. Because, for Japan, there would be other near countries

to colonize. For ROK, it would be easier to form a multilateral alliance with other countries. If it

hadn’t experienced the colonial period, it wouldn’t experience Korean War. In real history. DPRK

was in alliance with USSR. ROK was in alliance with the U.S.A. Korean peninsular was a

scapegoat of two big powers in WW2. I thought that it was a cultural and ideological war. Politics

of diplomacy, power relationships could have been formed in a different way. Then there are many

possible ways to develop infrastructure in a self-drive way, for ROK themselves. In reality, it was

influenced a lot by U.S.A. and Japan. Korea’s peninsular was a fight place of imperialism, at that

point, there are similarities with Africa. In ROK, preference toward the USA is popular. But hatred

toward Japan is easily observable, influenced factor is colonial memory. This awareness could

have been different. Tradeoffs of coastal and land are sacrificing some positivity in the location of

the sea to get more positivity inland. If ROK were a landlocked state, it could have experienced an

advantage as it creates a “natural tariff barrier”. Landlocked location protects the country from

cheap imports. But there are different kinds of difficulties, such as cuts off from important sea

resources. There is no opportunity to access maritime trade.

If there were no colonial period, then the Korean peninsular wouldn’t have been divided into two

countries. Then Northern part of the Korean peninsular wouldn’t experience economic difficulties.

Because the government leader of the whole peninsular can use all the resources on peninsular.

DPRK has been developed its economy by alliancing with USSR, and other socialist countries.

Geographical closeness with USSR, China would have influenced the alliance. But there are other

allianced countries although they are not geographically close with each other. DPRK has been

experiencing economic difficulties and it had to receive aid. Raw materials were enough but

management and economic distribution caused the problem. Even in DPRK, capitalism needs to

be adapted. Also, individuals need to be considered as an agent. Because a civil right has been

violated under the ideology. Food shortages are extreme. Agricultural development in DPRK is

required. Because aid has its pros and cons. To solve economic inequality in DPRK, individual

liberty should be improved.

Although there was no colonial period, ideological legitimation would have been perversive.

Individuals would have been experienced inequality. The factors attributed to inequality in ROK

are socio-economic class division, higher expectations of life. ROK is one of the countries that

experienced rapid economic development. The Four Asian Tigers are the economies of South

Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Hong Kong. But rapid industrialization didn’t fit its speed with

cultural insight. Also, the distribution of economic growth wasn’t fair. Inequality is severe and

meritocracy is a kind of a myth. Young Koreans in the age of 20~30s are called the MZ generation.

They had no economic difficulties as their parents’ generation experienced. They are the

consumer more educated by influenced by the economic downturns. When they mirror their

values, transparency and authenticity is an important matter. They consume value-oriented

brands. Their choice is more related to the flows of technology.

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Writer: © DahaKim 김다하